ProgrammingA program is a sequence of instructions that tells computer hardware what operations to perform on data. Programs can be built into the hardware itself or exist independently in a form called software. In some specialized or “dedicated” computers, operating instructions are integrated into their circuits; common examples are microcomputers found in calculators, wristwatches, automobile engines, and microwave ovens. A general-purpose computer, on the other hand, contains built-in programs (in ROM) or instructions (in the processor chip), but it depends on external programs to perform useful tasks. Once a computer has been programmed, it can only do what the software controlling it at any given time allows it to do. Widely used software includes a wide range of application programs - instructions to the computer on how to perform various tasks. Languages. A computer must receive instructions in a “language” that it understands, that is, a particular pattern of binary digital information. . On early computers, programming was a difficult and laborious task, because the ON-OFF switches on the vacuum tubes had to be set by hand. Teams of programmers often took days to program simple tasks such as sorting a list of names. Since then, a number of computer languages ​​have been designed, some with particular types of operation in mind and others aimed more at ease of use - the "user-friendly" approach. Machine language. Unfortunately, computer binary language, or machine language, is difficult for humans to use. The programmer must enter every command and data in binary form, and a basic operation such as comparing the contents of a register to the data in a memory chip location might look like this: 11001010 00010111 11110101 00101011. Programming in Machine language is such a tedious and time-consuming task whose time saved in running the program rarely justifies the days or weeks needed to write the program. Assembly language. A method designed by programmers to shorten and simplify the process is called "assembly language" programming. By assigning a short (usually three-letter) mnemonic code to each machine language command, assembly language programs could be written and "debugged" (cleaned of logic and data errors) in a fraction of the time it takes for programmers to do so. machine language. . In assembly language, each mnemonic command and its symbolic operands are equivalent to a machine instruction. An "assembler" program translates the mnemonic "opcodes" (operation codes) and symbolic operands into binary language and executes the program.