The Construction of a Modern National Consciousness, as its title indicates, is based on the question of Palestinian identity , which has long been misunderstood and distorted. One of the first striking points Khalidi makes is that Palestinian identity has been misunderstood because it is rooted in multiple different characteristics, including Islamic/Christian, Ottoman/Arab, local/universal, and familial/tribal. It is not that there was no Palestinian identity, but rather that it is not “linear” or “uniform” as, for example, the Zionist identity can be. Those who do not understand the depth and amalgamation of the histories of civilization will therefore be unable to understand Palestinian identity. The main question Khalidi seeks to answer throughout his book is: what are the roots of Palestinian national identity? Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on 'Why violent video games should not be banned'? Get the original essay It argues that, contrary to popular belief, Palestinian national identity emerged as a response to Zionism after the First World War global, Palestinian national identity is rooted in religious histories, attachment to living in one place for a very long time, and regional and local loyalties. First, Palestinian national identity is deeply rooted in the Christian and Muslim religions, which intensified after the Crusades of 1095-1291, almost a century before any sign of Zionism. This argument is quite strong because there is real archaeological evidence. Most important in this debate are al-Aqsa Mosque and al-Buraq Square, both located south of the Haram al-Sharif site. Second, Khalidi argues that Palestinian identity is rooted in living for a long time in one place and within a single administrative border and is deeply linked to the history of Ottoman rule. The land problems of the second aliyah prove to be the strongest proof of this. The fellahin, or peasants, lived and farmed the land of Palestine for hundreds of years, becoming prosperous through the cultivation of oranges for example. At the end of the 19th century, during the second migration of Jews, most of whom came from Russia, many of these peasants were displaced due to the "conquest of the land" by the Zionists. This caused great indignation and strong unification among the peasants, who rebelled against such land sales, as in the al-Fula affair. The farmers and governor argued that it was a betrayal of the Palestinian people who had historical roots with the land to simply be exiled by new migrants following a sale by an absentee landowner. Finally, Palestinian identity was deeply rooted in regional and local realities. loyalties. Both Ruhi al-Khalidi and Yusuf Diya received traditional Muslim education early in their lives and then contemporary Western education later. They traveled to Europe and learned about various societies, but ultimately returned to rule Jerusalem and held high diplomatic positions in their own country. For them, there was no contradiction between cultural nationalism (the Arab tradition) and the Ottoman framework (contemporary Western thought). Family ties were strong and although Yusuf Diya did not follow in his father's footsteps, he had a strong connection to his identity and land and sought to serve them in his final days. Khalidi's argument is very strong because it is rooted ina historical rather than theoretical exploration. He is able to support his arguments with real examples of events. But most importantly, he is able to explain how knowledge of these events circulated throughout Palestine and solidified Palestinian identity. He argues that education (and the modernization of education during the Tanzimat era) as well as journalism and mass media were the main dissemination tools that helped solidify Palestinian national identity. The education system changed dramatically during the Tanzimat reforms under Ottoman rule. Whereas previously we knew that only the elites were educated, and that there were many of them. Attending traditional Muslim schools, the Ottomans opened education to all. Modernized schools appeared throughout the region and included private schools, mission schools, and public schools. Although this contributed to a weaker and more fragmented Palestinian national identity overall, lacking a coherent tool for identity dissemination, more students learned about the history of previous cultures and the beginnings of the Zionism. Many Arab schools have opened their doors. and continued to teach language, history and culture that seemed out of fashion. It is this type of school that would provide the basis for a very strong Palestinian national identity, capable of combating Zionist influence. Journalism was the main form of disseminating information throughout the country. More people were able to sympathize with the national identity because more people were educated and literate. Khalidi points out that it may have taken time for information to travel from cultural centers to the peripheries, but it was important nonetheless. Many publications raise awareness and have strong opinions on Zionism, including Filastin and al-Quds. They helped bring unity and better organization to the Arabs, who lacked cohesion due to educational reforms, and created a stronger sense of Palestinian identity in relation to the "other". “One of the strengths of the book is the sources it uses. Khalidi criticizes the fact that more often than not, history is written by the winners of the stronger side rather than the weaker side. Therefore, most of Palestinian history has been written based on Zionist and Western sources. His book seeks to resolve this problem by providing a history of Palestine from the Arab perspective. In truth, as he explains, this is quite difficult because much of the Palestinian population was rural and illiterate and because Palestinian archives in Israel are difficult to access. , but it uses a wide variety and combination of secondary and primary sources. The impressive primary sources he draws on include speeches, pamphlets, autobiographies and newspapers. Additionally, some of the Arabic secondary sources include Abd al-Qadir's source on the disaster of the Arab nation and Amin Maalouf's book The Crusades through Arab Eyes. At the same time, Khalidi is aware that it is important to find a balance. He uses various Jewish and Western scholars to support his arguments, including David Kushner, Kenneth Stein, and Alexander Scholch. The rigor of the journalistic sources that Khalidi uses in his monograph is particularly interesting. For his study in Chapter 6, he studied 10,000 issues of 10 of the most important newspapers in Palestine (and the Middle East region). He found that around 500 articles were about Zionism, of which the al-Karmil newspaper was the most outspoken..